Windows 7 Professional Horsepower - Wikipedia, the

Horsepower (HP) is the identify of numerous units of measurement of strength. One of the most common definitions equivalent in between 735.five and 750 watts.[1] Horsepower was originally defined to match the output of steam engines using the energy of draft horses. The unit was extensively adopted to measure the output of piston engines, turbines, electric motors, and also other machinery. The definition from the unit varied between geographical areas. Most countries now utilize the SI unit watt for measurement of electrical power. With all the implementation with the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1, 2010, the usage of horsepower from the EU is only permitted as supplementary unit.
The definition in the horsepower also has varied between distinct apps:
The mechanical horsepower, also referred to as imperial horsepower, of precisely 550 foot-pounds for each 2nd is about equivalent to 745.seven watts.
The metric horsepower of 75 kgf-m per second is roughly equivalent to 735.499 watts.
The boiler horsepower is used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, or 9,809.five watts.
One horsepower for rating electrical motors is equivalent to 746 watts.
Continental European electrical motors used to have dual ratings, using conversion rate 0.735 kW for one HP
The Pferdestärke PS (German translation of horsepower) is a identify for a group of similar electrical power measurements used in Germany around the end with the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size.[2][3]
The Royal Automobile Club (RAC) horsepower or British tax horsepower is an estimate based on several engine dimensions. one History from the unit one.1 Horsepower from a horse 2 Current definitions 2.one Mechanical horsepower
2.2 Metric horsepower 2.2.one PS
2.2.2 pk, ch, hk,Microsoft Office 2010 Professional, hv, LE, k/ks, KS, KM, CP, PS
2.2.3 CV and cv 2.3 Boiler horsepower
2.4 Electrical horsepower
2.5 Relationship with torque
2.6 Drawbar horsepower
2.seven RAC horsepower (taxable horsepower) 3 Measurement 3.1 Nominal horsepower
3.2 Indicated horsepower
3.3 Brake horsepower
3.4 British horsepower
3.5 Shaft horsepower 4 Engine power test codes 4.one Society of Automotive Engineers 4.one.1 SAE gross strength
4.one.2 SAE net strength
4.one.3 SAE certified power 4.2 Deutsches Institut für Normung 70020
4.3 Economic Commission for Europe R24
4.4 80/1269/EEC
4.five International Organization for Standardization
4.6 Japanese Industrial Standard D 1001 five See also
6 References
7 External links [edit] History in the unit
The development from the steam engine provided a reason to match the output of horses with that from the engines that could replace them. In 1702,Microsoft Office 2010 Standard, Thomas Savery wrote inside the Miner's Friend: "So that an engine which will raise as much water as two horses, working together at one time in such a work, can do, and for which there must be constantly kept ten or twelve horses for doing the same. Then I say, such an engine may be made large enough to do the work required in employing eight, ten, fifteen, or twenty horses to be constantly maintained and kept for doing such a work…" The idea was later used by James Watt to help market his improved steam engine. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third in the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines.[4] This royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour (or 2.4 times a minute). The wheel was 12 feet in radius; therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π × 12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds. So:

This was rounded to an even 33,000 ft·lbf/min.[5]
Others[who?] recount that Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf (0.98 kN) 100 ft (30 m) per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony and thus arrived at the 33,000 ft·lbf/min figure.[citation needed]
Engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds for each minute. John Desaguliers increased that to 27,500 foot-pounds per minute. "Watt found by experiment in 1782 that a 'brewery horse' was able to produce 32,400 foot-pounds per minute." James Watt and Matthew Boulton standardized that figure at 33,000 the next year.[6]
Most observers familiar with horses and their capabilities estimate that Watt was either a bit optimistic or intended to underpromise and overdeliver; few horses can maintain that effort for long. Regardless, comparison with a horse proved to be an enduring marketing tool.[citation needed]
A healthy human can produce about 1.2 hp briefly (see orders of magnitude) and sustain about 0.1 hp indefinitely; trained athletes can manage up to about 2.5 hp briefly[7] and 0.3 hp for a period of numerous hours.
[edit] Horsepower from a horse
In 1993, R. D. Stevenson and R. J. Wassersug published an article calculating the upper limit to an animal's energy output.[8] The peak strength over a few seconds has been measured to be as high as 14.9 hp. However, Stevenson and Wassersug observe that for sustained activity, a work rate of about 1 hp per horse is consistent with agricultural advice from both 19th and 20th century sources.
[edit] Current definitions
The following definitions have been commonly used:
Mechanical horsepower
hp(I)
≡ 33,000 ft-lbf/min
= 550 ft·lbf/s
= 745.699872 W
Metric horsepower
hp(M)
≡ 75 kgf·m/s
≡ 735.49875 W
Electrical horsepower
hp(E)
≡ 746 W Boiler horsepower
hp(S)
≡ 33,475 BTU/h
= 9,809.5 W
Hydraulic horsepower
= flow rate (US gal/min) × pressure (psi) × 7/12,000
or
= flow rate (US gal/min) × pressure (psi) / 1714
= 550 ft·lbf/s
= 745.699872 W

In certain situations it is necessary to distinguish between the various definitions of horsepower and thus a suffix is added: hp(I) for mechanical (or imperial) horsepower, hp(M) for metric horsepower, hp(S) for boiler (or steam) horsepower and hp(E) for electrical horsepower.
Hydraulic horsepower is equivalent to mechanical horsepower. The formula given above is for conversion to mechanical horsepower from the factors acting on a hydraulic system.
[edit] Mechanical horsepower
Assuming the third CGPM (1901, CR 70) definition of standard gravity, gn=9.80665 m/s2, is used to define the pound-force as well as the kilogram force, and the international avoirdupois pound (1959), one mechanical horsepower is:
1 HP
≡ 33,000 ft·lbf/min
by definition = 550 ft·lbf/s
since
1 min 
= 60 s = 550×0.3048×0.45359237 m·kgf/s 
since
1 ft
= 0.3048 m and = 76. kgf·m/s 1 lb
= 0.45359237 kg = 76.×9.80665 kg·m2/s3 g
= 9.80665 m/s2 = 745.69987158227022 W
since
1 W
≡ one J/s = one N·m/s  = 1 (kg·m/s2)·(m/s)
Or given that 1 hp = 550 ft·lbf/s, 1 ft = 0.3048 m, 1 lbf ≈ 4.448 N, 1 J = 1 N·m, 1 W = 1 J/s: 1 hp = 746 W
[edit] Metric horsepower
Metric horsepower began in Germany inside the 19th century and became popular across Europe and Asia. The various units used to indicate this definition (PS, CV, hk, pk, ks and ch) all translate to horse power in English, so it is frequent to see these values referred to as horsepower or hp in the press releases or media coverage of the German, French, Italian, and Japanese automobile companies. British manufacturers often intermix metric horsepower and mechanical horsepower depending on the origin with the engine in question. Sometimes the metric horsepower rating of an engine is conservative enough so that the same figure can be used for both 80/1269/EEC with metric hp and SAE J1349 with imperial hp.
Metric horsepower, as a rule, is defined as 0.73549875 kW, or roughly 98.6% of mechanical horsepower. This was a minor issue from the days when measurement systems varied commonly and engines produced less electrical power, but has become a major sticking point today. Exotic cars from Europe like the McLaren F1 and Bugatti Veyron are often quoted using the wrong definition, and their electrical power output is sometimes even converted twice because of confusion over whether the original horsepower number was metric or mechanical.[citation needed]
[edit] PS
This unit (German: Pferdestärke = horse strength) is no longer a statutory unit, but is still commonly used in Europe, South America, Japan and India especially by the automotive and motorcycle industry. It was adopted throughout continental Europe with designations equivalent to the English horsepower, but mathematically different from the British unit.
DIN 66036 defines one horsepower to lift a mass of seventy five kilograms within one second against the earth gravitation over a distance of one metre.[9] Similar definitions were already common to the time of James Watt.
The PS was adopted by the Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN) and then by the automotive industry throughout most of Europe, under varying names. In 1992, the PS was rendered obsolete by EEC directives,Windows 7 Professional, when it was replaced by the kilowatt as the official strength measuring unit. It is still in use for commercial and advertising purposes, in addition to the kW rating, as many customers are still not familiar using the use of kilowatts for engines.
[edit] pk, ch, hk, hv, LE, k/ks, KS, KM, CP, PS
The Dutch paardenkracht (pk), the French chevaux (ch), the Swedish hästkraft (hk), the Finnish hevosvoima (hv), the Norwegian and Danish hestekraft (hk), the Hungarian lóerő (LE), the Czech koňská síla and Slovak koňská sila (k or ks), the Croatian and Serbian konjska snaga (KS), the Macedonian Којнска сила (KC), the Polish koń mechaniczny and Slovenian konjska moč (KM) and the Romanian cal-putere (CP) all equal the German Pferdestärke (PS), and are around equivalent to 735.5 W.
[edit] CV and cv
In Italian (Cavalli), Spanish (Caballos de vapor), and Portuguese (Cavalo-vapor), CV could be the equivalent to the German, PS. It is also used as the French term for the Pferdestärke, but in French, this should be written in lowercase letters as cv.
In addition, the capital form CV is used in Italy and France as a unit for tax horsepower, short for, respectively, cavalli vapore and chevaux vapeur (steam horses). CV is a non-linear rating of a motor vehicle for tax purposes.[10] The CV rating, or fiscal power, is , where P is the maximum power in kilowatts and U may be the amount of CO2 emitted in grams for each kilometre. The term for CO2 measurements has only been included inside the definition since 1998, so older ratings in CV are not directly comparable. The fiscal electrical power has found its way into naming of automobile models, such as the popular Citroën deux-chevaux. The cheval-vapeur (ch) unit should not be confused with the French cheval fiscal (CV).
In the 19th century, the French had their own unit, which they used instead from the CV or horsepower. It was called the poncelet and was abbreviated p.
[edit] Boiler horsepower
One boiler horse strength unit or BHP is equal to a boiler thermal output of 33,475 BTU/h (9.811 kW),Windows 7 License, which may be the energy rate needed to evaporate 34.5 lb (15.65 kg) at 212 °F (100 °C) in one hour. The unit is not current outside of North America.
The term was at first developed at the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition in 1876, where the best steam engines of that period were tested. The average steam consumption of those engines (for each output horsepower) was determined to be the evaporation of 30 lb/h of water, based on feedwater at 100 °F (37.8 °C), and saturated steam generated at 70 psi (480 kPa) gauge pressure. This original definition is equivalent to a boiler heat output of 33,485 BTU/h (9.813 kW). In 1884, the ASME redefined the boiler horsepower as the thermal output equivalent to the evaporation of 34.5 lb/h of water "from and at" 212 °F. This considerably simplified boiler testing, and provided more accurate comparisons in the boilers at that time. This revised definition is equivalent to a boiler heat output of 33,469 BTU/h (9.809 kW). Present industrial practice is to define boiler horsepower as a boiler thermal output equivalent to 33,475 BTU/h (9.811 kW), which is very close to the original and revised definitions.
The amount of strength that can be obtained by a steam engine or steam turbine based on boiler horsepower varies so extensively that utilization of the term is entirely obsolete for these purposes. The term makes no distinction as to the steam pressure or temperature which is produced (both of which significantly influence engine/turbine output); it merely defines a thermal output of a boiler. Smaller steam engines often require several boiler horsepower to make one horsepower, and modern steam turbines can make strength with as little as about 0.15 hp (boiler) thermal output per actual horsepower developed.
[edit] Electrical horsepower
The horsepower used for electrical machines is defined as specifically 746 W. The nameplates on electrical motors show their power output, not their electrical power input
[edit] Relationship with torque
For a given torque and speed, the energy may be calculated; the relationship among torque in foot-pounds, rotational speed in rpm and horsepower is:

Where P is energy, τ is torque, and f is rotations per minute. The constant 5252 comes from (33,000 ft·lbf/min)/(2π rad/rev).
The standard equation relating torque in inch lbs, rotational speed in rpm and horsepower is:

Where P is strength, τ is torque, and f is rotations per minute. The constant 63,025 comes from (33,000 ft·lbf/min) × (12 in/ft)/(2π rad/rev).
See torque.
[edit] Drawbar horsepower See also Electrical power at rail
Drawbar horsepower (dbhp) will be the strength a railway locomotive has available to haul a train or an agricultural tractor to pull an implement. This is a measured figure rather than a calculated one. A special railway car called a dynamometer car coupled behind the locomotive keeps a continuous record in the drawbar pull exerted, and the speed. From these, the power generated can be calculated. To determine the maximum strength available, a controllable load is required; it is normally a second locomotive with its brakes applied, in addition to a static load.
If the drawbar force (F) is measured in pounds-force (lbf) and speed (v) is measured in miles for each hour (mph), then the drawbar power (P) in horsepower (hp) is:

Example: How much strength is needed to pull a drawbar load of 2,025 pounds-force at 5 miles for each hour?

The constant 375 is because 1 hp = 375 lbf·mph. If other units are used, the constant is different. When using a coherent system of models, such as SI (watts, newtons, and metres for each second), no constant is needed, and the formula becomes P = Fv.
[edit] RAC horsepower (taxable horsepower)
This measure was instituted by the Royal Automobile Club in Britain and was used to denote the energy of early 20th century British cars. Many cars took their names from this figure (hence the Austin Seven and Riley Nine), while others had names such as "40/50 hp", which indicated the RAC figure followed by the true measured strength.
Taxable horsepower does not reflect developed horsepower; rather, it is a calculated figure based on the engine's bore size, number of cylinders, and a (now archaic) presumption of engine efficiency. As new engines were designed with ever-increasing efficiency, it was no longer a useful measure, but was kept in use by UK regulations which used the rating for tax purposes.
where D may be the diameter (or bore) in the cylinder in inches
n may be the number of cylinders [11]
This is equivalent to the displacement in cubic inches divided by 10π then divided again by the stroke in inches.
Since taxable horsepower was computed based on bore and number of cylinders, not based on actual displacement, it gave rise to engines with 'undersquare' dimensions (i.e., relatively narrow bore), but long stroke; this tended to impose an artificially low limit on rotational speed (rpm), hampering the potential power output and efficiency with the engine.
The situation persisted for numerous generations of four- and six-cylinder British engines: for example, Jaguar's 3.4-litre XK engine with the 1950s had six cylinders with a bore of 83 mm (3.27 in) and a stroke of 106 mm (4.17 in),[12] where most American automakers had long since moved to oversquare (wide bore, short stroke) V-8s (see, for example, the early Chrysler Hemi).
[edit] Measurement
The electrical power of an engine may be measured or estimated at numerous points from the transmission with the energy from its generation to its application. A number of names are used for the strength developed at various stages in this process, but none is a clear indicator of either the measurement system or definition used.
In the case of an engine dynamometer, strength is measured at the engine's flywheel (i.e., at the crankshaft output). With a chassis dynamometer or rolling road, electrical power output is measured at the driving wheels. This accounts for the significant electrical power loss through the drive train.
In general:
Nominal is derived from the size with the engine and the piston speed and is just accurate at a pressure of 48 kPa (7 psi).[13] Indicated or gross horsepower (theoretical capability from the engine) [ PLAN/ 33000] minus frictional losses within the engine (bearing drag, rod and crankshaft windage losses, oil film drag, etc.), equals Brake / net / crankshaft horsepower (strength delivered directly to and measured at the engine's crankshaft) minus frictional losses from the transmission (bearings, gears, oil drag, windage, etc.), equals Shaft horsepower (energy delivered to and measured at the output shaft in the transmission, when present in the system) minus frictional losses inside the universal joint/s, differential, wheel bearings, tire and chain, (if present), equals Effective, True (thp) or commonly referred to as wheel horsepower (whp)
All the above assumes that no energy inflation factors have been applied to any of the readings.
Engine designers use expressions other than horsepower to denote objective targets or performance, such as brake mean effective pressure (BMEP). This is a coefficient of theoretical brake horsepower and cylinder pressures during combustion.
[edit] Nominal horsepower
Nominal horsepower (nhp) is an early Nineteenth Century rule of thumb used to estimate the electrical power of steam engines.
nhp = 7 x area of piston x equivalent piston speed/33,000
For paddle ships the piston speed was estimated as 129.7 x (stroke)1/3.35
For the nominal horsepower to equivalent the actual power it would be necessary for the mean steam pressure in the cylinder during the stroke to be 48 kPa (7 psi) and for the piston speed to be of the order of 54–75 m/min.[13]
[edit] Indicated horsepower
Indicated horsepower (ihp) could be the theoretical electrical power of a reciprocating engine if it is completely frictionless in converting the expanding gas energy (piston pressure × displacement) inside the cylinders. It is calculated from the pressures developed in the cylinders, measured by a device called an engine indicator – hence indicated horsepower. As the piston advances throughout its stroke, the pressure against the piston generally decreases, and the indicator device usually generates a graph of pressure vs stroke within the working cylinder. From this graph the amount of work performed during the piston stroke may be calculated. It was the figure normally used for steam engines within the 19th century but is misleading because the actual energy output may only be 70% to 90% in the indicated horsepower.
[edit] Brake horsepower
Brake horsepower (bhp) is the measure of an engine's horsepower before the loss in power caused by the gearbox, alternator, differential, water pump, and other auxiliary components such as strength steering pump, muffled exhaust system, etc. Brake refers to a device which was used to load an engine and hold it at a desired RPM. During testing, the output torque and rotational speed were measured to determine the brake horsepower. Horsepower was originally measured and calculated by use of the indicator (a James Watt invention of the late 18th century), and later by means of a De Prony brake connected to the engine's output shaft. More recently, an engine dynamometer is used instead of a De Prony brake. The output delivered to the driving wheels is less than that obtainable at the engine's crankshaft.
[edit] British horsepower
The abbreviation bhp may also be used for British horsepower (though the usual use is Brake Horse Power), which has the same definition as the American SAE gross brake horsepower: 33,000 lb·ft/min. More information on American SAE horsepower measurements is below.
[edit] Shaft horsepower
Shaft horsepower (shp) could be the energy delivered to the propeller shafts of a steamship (or one powered by diesel engines or nuclear energy), or an aircraft powered by a piston engine or a gas turbine engine. This shaft horsepower can be measured with instruments, or estimated from the indicated horsepower and a standard figure for the losses in the transmission (typical figures are around 10%). This measure is uncommonly used from the automobile industry, because there, drive train losses can become significant.
[edit] Engine energy test codes
Engine strength test codes determine how the strength and torque of an automobile engine is measured and corrected. Correction factors are used to adjust energy and torque measurements to standard atmospheric conditions to provide a more accurate comparison among engines as they are affected by the pressure, humidity, and temperature of ambient air.[14] There exist a number of standards for this purpose, some described below.
[edit] Society of Automotive Engineers
[edit] SAE gross energy
Prior to the 1972 model year, American automakers rated and advertised their engines in brake horsepower (bhp), frequently referred to as SAE gross horsepower, because it was measured in accord with all the protocols defined in SAE standards J245 and J1995. As with other brake horsepower test protocols, SAE gross hp was measured using a stock test engine, generally running with few belt-driven accessories and sometimes fitted with long tube (test headers) in lieu from the OEM exhaust manifolds. The atmospheric correction standards for barometric pressure, humidity and temperature for testing were relatively idealistic.
[edit] SAE net electrical power
In the United States, the term bhp fell into disuse in 1971-72, as automakers began to quote electrical power in terms of SAE net horsepower in accord with SAE standard J1349. Like SAE gross as well as other brake horsepower protocols, SAE Net hp is measured at the engine's crankshaft, and so does not account for transmission losses. However, the SAE net power testing protocol calls for standard production-type belt-driven accessories, air cleaner, emission controls, exhaust system,Office Standard 2010, as well as other power-consuming accessories. This produces ratings in closer alignment using the energy produced by the engine as it is actually configured and sold.
[edit] SAE certified strength
In 2005, the SAE introduced "SAE Certified Power" with SAE J2723.[15] This test is voluntary and is in itself not a separate engine test code but a certification of either J1349 or J1995 after which the manufacturer is allowed to advertise "Certified to SAE J1349" or "Certified to SAE J1995" depending on which test standard have been followed. To attain certification the test must follow the SAE standard in question, take place in a ISO9000/9002 certified facility and be witnessed by an SAE approved third party.
A few manufacturers such as Honda and Toyota switched to the new ratings immediately, with multi-directional results; the rated output of Cadillac's supercharged Northstar V8 jumped from 440 to 469 hp (330 to 350 kW) under the new tests, while the rating for Toyota's Camry 3.0 L 1MZ-FE V6 fell from 210 to 190 hp (160 to 140 kW). The ES330 and Camry SE V6 were previously rated at 225 hp (168 kW) but the ES330 dropped to 218 hp (163 kW) while the Camry declined to 210 hp (160 kW). The first engine certified under the new program was the 7.0 L LS7 used from the 2006 Chevrolet Corvette Z06. Certified energy rose slightly from 500 to 505 hp (370 to 377 kW).
While Toyota and Honda are retesting their entire vehicle lineups, other automakers generally are retesting only those with updated powertrains. For example, the 2006 Ford Five Hundred is rated at 203 horsepower, the same as that of 2005 model. However, the 2006 rating does not reflect the new SAE testing procedure as Ford is not going to spend the extra expense of retesting its existing engines. Over time, most automakers are expected to comply with all the new guidelines.
SAE tightened its horsepower rules after some engineers noticed parts from the old test could be subjected to distinct interpretations. Under the old testing procedures, there were small factors that required a judgment call: how much oil was within the crankcase, how the engine controls were calibrated and whether a vehicle was tested with premium fuel. In some cases, such can add up to a change in horsepower ratings. A road test editor at Edmunds.com, John Di Pietro, said decreases in horsepower ratings for some '06 models are not that dramatic. For vehicles like a midsize family sedan, it is likely that the reputation with the manufacturer will be more important.[16]
[edit] Deutsches Institut für Normung 70020
DIN 70020 is a standard from German DIN regarding road vehicles. Because the German word for horsepower is Pferdestärke, in Germany it is commonly abbreviated to PS. DIN hp is measured at the engine's output shaft, and is usually expressed in metric (Pferdestärke) rather than mechanical horsepower.
[edit] Economic Commission for Europe R24
ECE R24 is a European standard for the approval of compression ignition engine emissions, installation and measurement of engine electrical power.[17] It is similar to DIN 70020 standard, but with distinct requirements for connecting an engine's fan during testing causing it to absorb less power from the engine.[18]
[edit] 80/1269/EEC
80/1269/EEC of 16 December 1980 is a European Union standard for road vehicle engine energy.
[edit] International Organization for Standardization ISO 14396 specifies the additional and method requirement for determinating the strength of reciprocating internal combustion engines when presented for an ISO 8178 exhaust emission test. It applies to reciprocating internal combustion engines for land, rail and marine use excluding engines of motor vehicles primarily designed for road use.[19] ISO 1585 is an engine net strength test code intended for road vehicles.[20] ISO 2534 is an engine gross strength test code intended for road vehicles[21] ISO 4164 is an engine net energy test code intended for mopeds.[22] ISO 4106 is an engine net strength test code intended for motorcycles.[23] ISO 9249 is an engine net power test code intended for earth moving machines.[24] [edit] Japanese Industrial Standard D 1001
JIS D 1001 is a Japanese net, and gross, engine energy test code for automobiles or trucks having a spark ignition, diesel engine, or fuel injection engine.[25]
[edit] See also Brake specific fuel consumption—how much fuel an engine consumes per unit energy output
Horse strength (machine)
Horsepower-hour
European units of measurement directives [edit] References [edit] External links Energy and Torque Explained A clear explanation in the relationship among Power and Torque, and how they relate to engine performance.
Road Dyno Measures Horsepower Road dynamometer results vs. a chassis dyno.
How Stuff Works - Horsepower
Horsepower and Torque An article showing how power, torque, and gearing affect a vehicle's performance.
Online Horsepower Converter
Horsepower and energy losses Explains Horsepower and the electrical power losses from the engine and strength train.
What is Horsepower? (picture)
"What's the difference among horsepower and torque?" at the Straight Dope
Vehicle Horsepower Calculator from 1/4 mile data v · d · eISO standards Lists: List of ISO standards · List of ISO romanizations · List of IEC standards
Categories: Category:ISO standards · Category:OSI protocols 1
to
9999 10000
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19999 20000+ See also: All articles beginning with "ISO"