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05-01-2011, 04:30 PM
In a computer's
central processing unit (CPU), an
accumulator is a register in which intermediate
arithmetic and logic
results are stored. Without a register like an accumulator, it
would be necessary to write the result of each calculation
(addition, multiplication, shift, etc.) to main memory, perhaps only to be read
right back again for use in the next operation. Access to main
memory is slower than access to a register like the accumulator
because the technology used for the large main memory is slower
(but cheaper) than that used for a register.
The canonical example for accumulator use is
summing a list of numbers. The accumulator is initially set to
zero, then each number in turn is added to the value in the
accumulator. Only when all numbers have been added is the result
held in the accumulator written to main memory or to another,Office 2010 Professional Plus (http://www.msoffice2007key.com/office-2010-key),
non-accumulator,Windows 7 Ultimate (http://www.windows7keygen.us/), CPU register.
An accumulator machine, also
called a 1-operand
machine, or a CPU with accumulator-based architecture,
is a kind of CPU in which—although it may have several
registers—the CPU always stores the results of most calculations in
one special register—typically called "the" accumulator
of that CPU. Historically almost all early computers were
accumulator machines; and many microcontrollers still popular as of 2010
(such as the 68HC12, the PICmicro, the 8051 and
several others) are basically accumulator machines.
Modern CPUs are typically 2-operand or 3-operand
machines—the additional operands specify which one of many general purpose registers (also
called "general purpose accumulators"
[1] ) are used as the source and
destination for calculations. These CPUs are not considered
"accumulator machines".
The characteristic which distinguishes one register
as being the accumulator of a computer architecture is that the
accumulator (if the architecture were to have one) would be used as
an implicit operand for
arithmetic instructions. For
instance, a CPU might have an instruction like:
ADD memaddress
This instruction would add the value read from the
memory location at memaddress to the value from the
accumulator, placing the result in the accumulator. The accumulator
is not identified in the instruction by a register number; it is
implicit in the
instruction and no other register can be specified in the
instruction. Some architectures use a particular register as an
accumulator in some instructions, but other instructions use
register numbers for explicit operand specification.
Contents:
1. History of the
computer accumulator
2. Notable
Accumulator-based computers
3.
References
1. History of the personal computer
accumulator
Historical convention dedicates a register to
"the accumulator", an "arithmetic organ" that
literally accumulates its number during a sequence of arithmetic
operations:
"The first part of our arithmetic organ ... should be a
parallel storage organ which can receive a number and add it to the
one already in it, which is also able to clear its contents and
which can store what it contains. We will call such an organ an
Accumulator. It is quite conventional in principle in past and
present computing machines of the most varied types, e.g. desk
multipliers, standard IBM counters, more modern relay machines, the
ENIAC" (Goldstine and von Neumann, 1946; p. 98 in Bell and
Newell 1971).
Just a few of the instructions are,Microsoft Office 2007 Product Key (http://www.office2010key.ca/office-2007-key), for example
(with some modern interpretation):
Clear accumulator and add number from memory location x
Clear accumulator and subtract number from memory location
x
Add number copied from memory location x to the contents of the
accumulator
Subtract number copied from memory location x from the contents
of the accumulator
Clear accumulator and shift contents of register into
accumulator
No convention exists regarding the names for
operations from registers to accumulator and from accumulator to
registers. Tradition (e.g. Donald
Knuth's (1973) hypothetical MIX
laptop or computer), for example, uses two instructions called LOAD
ACCUMULATOR from memory/register (e.g. "LDA r") and STORE
ACCUMULATOR in register/memory (e.g. "STA r").
Knuth's model has many other instructions as well.
2. Notable Accumulator-based
computers
The 12-bit PDP-8 was one of
the first minicomputers to use accumulators,Office 2010 Key (http://www.windows7-key.in/office-2010-key), and inspired many
later machines.[citation
needed] The PDP-8 had but one accumulator. The
HP 2100 and Data General Nova had 2 and 4
accumulators. The Nova was created when this follow-on to the PDP-8
was rejected in favor of what would become the PDP-11. The Nova provided four accumulators,
AC0-AC3, although AC2 and AC3 could also be used to provide offset
addresses, tending towards more generality of usage for the
registers. The PDP-11 introduced a more
contemporary model of general registers, numbered R0-R7 or more,
adopted by most later CISC and RISC machines.
Early 4-bit and 8-bit microprocessors such as the
4004, 8008 and
numerous others, typically had single accumulators. The 8051 microcontroller has two, a primary accumulator
and a secondary accumulator, where the second is used by
instructions only when multiplying (MUL AB) or dividing (DIV AB);
the former splits the 16-bit result between the two 8-bit
accumulators, whereas the latter stores the quotient on the primary
accumulator A and the remainder in the secondary accumulator B. As
a direct descendent of the 8008, the 8080,
and the 8086, the modern ubiquitous Intel x86 processors still uses the primary
accumulator EAX and the secondary accumulator EDX for
multiplication and division of large numbers. For instance, MUL ECX
will multiply the 32-bit registers ECX and EAX and split the 64-bit
result between EAX and EDX. However, MUL and DIV are special cases,
other arithmetic-logical instructions (ADD, SUB, CMP,Microsoft Office Professional 2010 (http://www.office2007key.us/office-2010-key), AND, OR, XOR,
TEST) may specify any of the eight registers EAX, ECX, EDX, EBX,
ESP, EBP, ESI, EDI as the accumulator (i.e. left operand and
destination); x86 is thus a fairly general register architecture,
despite being based on an accumulator model.
[2] The 64-bit extension of x86, x86-64, has been further generalized to 14 instead
of 6 general registers.
3. References
"HC16 Overview". Freescale.com.
Retrieved 2008-09-22.[dead link]
Irvine, Kip R. (2007). Assembly Language
for Intel-Based Computers (5th edition ed.). Pearson Prentice
Hall. pp. 633, 622. ISBN 0-13-238310-1. Goldstine, Herman H., and von Neumann, John, "Planning and
Coding of the Problems for an Electronic Computing
Instrument", Rep. 1947, Institute for Advanced
Study, Princeton. Reprinted on pp. 92-119 in Bell, C. Gordon
and Newell, Allen (1971), Laptop or computer Structures: Readings and
Examples, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. ISBN 0-07-004357-4}. A veritable
treasure-trove of detailed descriptions of ancient machines
including photos.
This article was originally based on material
from the Free
On-line Dictionary of Computing, which is licensed under the GFDL.
central processing unit (CPU), an
accumulator is a register in which intermediate
arithmetic and logic
results are stored. Without a register like an accumulator, it
would be necessary to write the result of each calculation
(addition, multiplication, shift, etc.) to main memory, perhaps only to be read
right back again for use in the next operation. Access to main
memory is slower than access to a register like the accumulator
because the technology used for the large main memory is slower
(but cheaper) than that used for a register.
The canonical example for accumulator use is
summing a list of numbers. The accumulator is initially set to
zero, then each number in turn is added to the value in the
accumulator. Only when all numbers have been added is the result
held in the accumulator written to main memory or to another,Office 2010 Professional Plus (http://www.msoffice2007key.com/office-2010-key),
non-accumulator,Windows 7 Ultimate (http://www.windows7keygen.us/), CPU register.
An accumulator machine, also
called a 1-operand
machine, or a CPU with accumulator-based architecture,
is a kind of CPU in which—although it may have several
registers—the CPU always stores the results of most calculations in
one special register—typically called "the" accumulator
of that CPU. Historically almost all early computers were
accumulator machines; and many microcontrollers still popular as of 2010
(such as the 68HC12, the PICmicro, the 8051 and
several others) are basically accumulator machines.
Modern CPUs are typically 2-operand or 3-operand
machines—the additional operands specify which one of many general purpose registers (also
called "general purpose accumulators"
[1] ) are used as the source and
destination for calculations. These CPUs are not considered
"accumulator machines".
The characteristic which distinguishes one register
as being the accumulator of a computer architecture is that the
accumulator (if the architecture were to have one) would be used as
an implicit operand for
arithmetic instructions. For
instance, a CPU might have an instruction like:
ADD memaddress
This instruction would add the value read from the
memory location at memaddress to the value from the
accumulator, placing the result in the accumulator. The accumulator
is not identified in the instruction by a register number; it is
implicit in the
instruction and no other register can be specified in the
instruction. Some architectures use a particular register as an
accumulator in some instructions, but other instructions use
register numbers for explicit operand specification.
Contents:
1. History of the
computer accumulator
2. Notable
Accumulator-based computers
3.
References
1. History of the personal computer
accumulator
Historical convention dedicates a register to
"the accumulator", an "arithmetic organ" that
literally accumulates its number during a sequence of arithmetic
operations:
"The first part of our arithmetic organ ... should be a
parallel storage organ which can receive a number and add it to the
one already in it, which is also able to clear its contents and
which can store what it contains. We will call such an organ an
Accumulator. It is quite conventional in principle in past and
present computing machines of the most varied types, e.g. desk
multipliers, standard IBM counters, more modern relay machines, the
ENIAC" (Goldstine and von Neumann, 1946; p. 98 in Bell and
Newell 1971).
Just a few of the instructions are,Microsoft Office 2007 Product Key (http://www.office2010key.ca/office-2007-key), for example
(with some modern interpretation):
Clear accumulator and add number from memory location x
Clear accumulator and subtract number from memory location
x
Add number copied from memory location x to the contents of the
accumulator
Subtract number copied from memory location x from the contents
of the accumulator
Clear accumulator and shift contents of register into
accumulator
No convention exists regarding the names for
operations from registers to accumulator and from accumulator to
registers. Tradition (e.g. Donald
Knuth's (1973) hypothetical MIX
laptop or computer), for example, uses two instructions called LOAD
ACCUMULATOR from memory/register (e.g. "LDA r") and STORE
ACCUMULATOR in register/memory (e.g. "STA r").
Knuth's model has many other instructions as well.
2. Notable Accumulator-based
computers
The 12-bit PDP-8 was one of
the first minicomputers to use accumulators,Office 2010 Key (http://www.windows7-key.in/office-2010-key), and inspired many
later machines.[citation
needed] The PDP-8 had but one accumulator. The
HP 2100 and Data General Nova had 2 and 4
accumulators. The Nova was created when this follow-on to the PDP-8
was rejected in favor of what would become the PDP-11. The Nova provided four accumulators,
AC0-AC3, although AC2 and AC3 could also be used to provide offset
addresses, tending towards more generality of usage for the
registers. The PDP-11 introduced a more
contemporary model of general registers, numbered R0-R7 or more,
adopted by most later CISC and RISC machines.
Early 4-bit and 8-bit microprocessors such as the
4004, 8008 and
numerous others, typically had single accumulators. The 8051 microcontroller has two, a primary accumulator
and a secondary accumulator, where the second is used by
instructions only when multiplying (MUL AB) or dividing (DIV AB);
the former splits the 16-bit result between the two 8-bit
accumulators, whereas the latter stores the quotient on the primary
accumulator A and the remainder in the secondary accumulator B. As
a direct descendent of the 8008, the 8080,
and the 8086, the modern ubiquitous Intel x86 processors still uses the primary
accumulator EAX and the secondary accumulator EDX for
multiplication and division of large numbers. For instance, MUL ECX
will multiply the 32-bit registers ECX and EAX and split the 64-bit
result between EAX and EDX. However, MUL and DIV are special cases,
other arithmetic-logical instructions (ADD, SUB, CMP,Microsoft Office Professional 2010 (http://www.office2007key.us/office-2010-key), AND, OR, XOR,
TEST) may specify any of the eight registers EAX, ECX, EDX, EBX,
ESP, EBP, ESI, EDI as the accumulator (i.e. left operand and
destination); x86 is thus a fairly general register architecture,
despite being based on an accumulator model.
[2] The 64-bit extension of x86, x86-64, has been further generalized to 14 instead
of 6 general registers.
3. References
"HC16 Overview". Freescale.com.
Retrieved 2008-09-22.[dead link]
Irvine, Kip R. (2007). Assembly Language
for Intel-Based Computers (5th edition ed.). Pearson Prentice
Hall. pp. 633, 622. ISBN 0-13-238310-1. Goldstine, Herman H., and von Neumann, John, "Planning and
Coding of the Problems for an Electronic Computing
Instrument", Rep. 1947, Institute for Advanced
Study, Princeton. Reprinted on pp. 92-119 in Bell, C. Gordon
and Newell, Allen (1971), Laptop or computer Structures: Readings and
Examples, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. ISBN 0-07-004357-4}. A veritable
treasure-trove of detailed descriptions of ancient machines
including photos.
This article was originally based on material
from the Free
On-line Dictionary of Computing, which is licensed under the GFDL.